14. Progressive era (1890-1917): Reforms and their effects

Introduction and background

It’s a period when many reforms and laws were enacted in order to regulate political, social, economic systems in the United States .  According to Henry Bamford Parker “Progressivism was a movement with middle class objectives, deriving much of its support from small businessmen, farmers and professional people. The typical progressive leader was some lawyer, journalist or businessman aroused by corruption or misgovernment in his own community, started a crusade to elect better man to office but he soon he realized the system needs to be changed as well as the men who run it”.  During the gilded age (1878-99), the upper class generally believed that there wealth was God-given and those who lived in poverty did so because they were immoral (social Darwinism). A few politicians like Roosevelt, Taft and Wilson also became stewards of people in this movement.

Following areas were identified by the reformers for amelioration.

Problems in Social sphere

Slum clearance, better education with gender equality, better employment opportunities , social injustice , widespread, protection of natural resources , prison conditions , Labor protection, child labor , , food inspection and quality, Haphazard sprawling of the cities due to unchecked immigration, strained transport, drug issues , gender discrimination, Alcohol consumption(curtailed by establishment of anti-saloon league in 1893) .

Issues in Economic sphere

Exploitative banking system, better credit facilities for the farmers and marginalized sections, monopoly of big corporations particularly Rail-road mismanagement.

Political sphere

Direct primaries, popular election of the senators, referendum by people for passage of laws, women suffrage, corruption in government, nexus between officials and interests groups.

Role of American intellectuals in highlighting the lacunae 

Edward A. Ross

A sociologist who wrote a book “social control 1901”. In the book he floated the idea  of participation of specialists and intellectuals like lawyers, professional administrators, doctors and social workers in reformation of the society.

Herbert Croly

A political theorists who wrote book “The promise of American life 1909”. In his book, he emphasized the need for efficient federal planning vis-s-vis public interests.

Walter Lippmann

 An editor by profession, in 1914, he vociferously propounded the idea of preserving the natural resources and urged the government to conduct a survey of natural resources. Forests and efficient farming, water etc.

W. E. B. Du Bois

A black scholar and teacher, he completed an essay in his book “Souls of black folk 1903”. He wrote:  ‘we must strive for the right which the world accords to men’.  By men here, he meant all human beings. He is considered to be the pioneer of civil rights movement in the United States (1950-1970).

Upton Sinclair

 A journalist and novelist, wrote a gruesome account “The jungle”. He unearthed the news of the use of diseased meat by the packing companies of Chicago that led to promulgation of federal law “meat inspection law in 1906”.

Frank Norris

The octopus (1901) and the pit (1903) were his famous publications. In these writings,  he denounced the power of railroad and grain spectaculars.

Lincoln Stephen

He exposed the municipal corruption of under Boss regimes in Pittsburgh and pointed towards maladministration of law and Nexus among different interests groups in his book “shame of the cities 1904”.

Robert woods

In his book “how the other half lives 1890”, he articulated his bitter experiences of settlement in Boston and the conditions of the slums around big cities.

John Dewy

He explored progressive education in ‘school and society 1899’ and ‘democracy and education 1916’. Before that,  education was meant to infuse moralities but he introduced the concept of modern education.

Hallmarks of the Progressive Era

• Class distinctions(upper, middle, lower) 
• Burgeoning wealth gap(<2% owned 60% wealth)
• Reduction in family size(in 1800 7/family, 1900 3/family)
• Women rights(became important , 1920 got suffrage)
• Urbanization( unchecked sprawling due to immigration and problems , 51%/1920 in cities)
• Labor class (at mercy of big business)
• Agriculture sector(in shambles due to monopoly of industry)
• Child labor(18%/1900 consensus reported to be working b/w 10-15)
• Gender discrimination and religious version of education were in vogue. 

Beginning of reform at state level in 1900

A wave of reform began with the election of Lafollette as a Republican governor of Wisconsin in 1900. During his six years as governor,  he pressured the state legislature to enact laws related to:

• Recognition of human rights 
• Direct primaries , civil service
• Restriction on lobbying control of banks and railroads; higher taxes on railroads and other corporations
• He also supported state income tax
• He also encouraged women’s role in politics and public life by appointing them to state service. Moreover, he endorsed the idea of women suffrage.

Following his doctrine, other Southern states enacted similar programs. Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Indiana, Colorado, Oregon, South Carolina, Mississippi and Georgia prescribed laws limiting the power of corporation especially Railroad, slapping penalties on corrupt politicians.
In 1915, North Dakota formed Nonpartisan league to improve conditions of farmers and ordinary citizens through state-owned elevators, flour mills and banks.

Progressivism had gained more success in North as in 1910, Wilson was elected as governor of New Jersey. He prepared the way for anti-trust measures and pushed through important reforms including corrupt practices act, working men’s compensation law, direct primary, food and drug legislation and laws providing for state control of Railroad and other public utilities.

A plethora of Reforms and Acts

Laws during the Roosevelt rule (1901-9)

Sherman Anti-Trust Act 1890

Roosevelt revived this act in 1902, this law deemed illegal every contract, combination or conspiracy in restraint of trade. Those engaged in monopolistic designs in interstate trade will be imprisoned or fined or both. It was intended to maintain the competition. Under this act many giant corporations like The American Tobacco Company, Railroad and The standard oil company were cut down to size.

Elkins Act 1903

Making it illegal for a Railroad to deviate from its published rates, thus forbidding the granting or receiving of rebates.

Newlands Act 1902

It provided federal funds for reclamation projects in West.

Pure Food and Drug Act 1906

It ensured federal inspection of meat and forbade manufacture and sale of adulterated products.

Hepburn Act 1906

It gave interstate commerce commission (ICC), on receipt of complaint from a shipper, to set aside existing rates and fix substitutes. It ensured effective supervision of railroads by ICC.

Antiquities Act 1906

Authority to place certain lands under Government control. Roosevelt along with Gifford Pinchot secured hundreds of thousands valuable forests, grazing areas, coal and mineral lands, oil and water-power sites.

Woodrow Wilson (1913-21)

Clayton Anti-Trust Act 1914

Aimed at increasing competition in business and defined unfair business practices particularly outlawing cutting prices, acquisition of stocks by corporations in competing firms, deliberate fluctuations of prices.
A Federal Trade Commission, comprises five members, was set up to enforce the act in 1914.

Federal Reserve Act 1913

Under this act, the notes issued by new banks should be obligation of US. Federally charted banks were required to join the Federal Reserve System.

Federal Farm loan Act 1916

Long term credit at low interest rates was granted to Farmers which they were demanding. Land banks were established in Federal Reserve districts which gave loans for up to 16 years.

The Warehouse Act 1916

It permitted the issuance of receipts by licensed warehouses against farm produce. That receipt can be used to secure bank loans.

Kern-McGillicuddy Act 1916

Provided working men’s compensation for federal employees.

Adamson Act 1916

Established the first federal eight-hour day applying to non-federal employment.

Lafollette’s Seamen’s Act 1915:

It was designed to improve working conditions for workers on American registered vessels.

Federal Aid Road Act 1917

Provided federal funds for the construction of roads.

Achievements of progressive movement

• By the end of the WW1, about three quarters of the states had accident insurance system
• Ten states had enacted minimum wage standards for women
• 20 states granted pensions to needy widows 
• Nearly all states had enacted laws related to minimum working hours for children.
• The drive for public ownership of public utilities had resulted in local control over two-thirds of city’s waterworks system and many gas and electric systems.
• The referendum, first implemented in South Dakota in 1898, had spread to 20 states by 1959.
• By 1911, women had secured vote in 11 states 
• Direct primaries was instituted in almost all states following Wisconsin example.
• Protection of natural resources became a priority 
• As a result of educational reforms, student enrollment rose from 6.9 million 1870 to 17.8 million in 1910 and number of colleges and universities grew from 593 to 1000.
• Gender discrimination curtailed as women enrollment was surging, from 1870 to 1910, 56000 to 140000 and 283000 by 1920 in higher institution. 

Decline of progressivism

• Many of its leaders died 
• Attention diverted towards external affairs WW1
• Declining public interest due to inter-sectional problems and slow outcome of efforts
• European totalitarianism experience during war cautioned people not to vest all powers in government. 

Critical analysis

It was a fruitful movement  as many ills of political, social and economic areas were identified and rectified to a great extent. However, on the whole, the movement failed to eliminate the monopoly of big corporations and bridging the wealth gap between rich and poor.